Bibliography

Primary:

1. Arkenberg. Prof. Reprinted in Brian McArthur, Penguin Book of Twentieth Century Speeches (London:     Penguin Viking, 1992), pp. 234-237.

2. "Assassination of Mr Gandhi | World News | Guardian.co.uk." Latest News, Comment and Reviews from the Guardian | Guardian.co.uk. Web. 04 June 2011. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/1948/jan/31/india.fromthearchive>.

3. Gandhi, Mohandas. Great-Quotes.com, Gledhill Enterprises, 2011.

http://www.great-quotes.com/quote/95699, accessed Sun Jun 5 14:04:48 2011.

4. Hazewell, Charles C. "The Indian Revolt." The Atlantic %u2014 News and Analysis on Politics, Business, Culture, Technology, National, International, and Life %u2013 TheAtlantic.com. The Atlantic Monthly. Web. 05 June 2011. <http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/1857dec/revolt.htm>.

5. McArthur, Brian, Penguin Book of Twentieth Century Speeches (London: Penguin Viking, 1992), pp. 234-237. by Prof. Arkenberg.

 6.Nehru, Jawaharlal. "'A Tryst with Destiny'." Nehru, Jawaharlal. Independence and             After: A Collection of Speeches. New York: John Day Co., 1950, p. 3. Modern             World History Online. Facts On File,             Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?
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1. Sheean, Vincent, Lead, Kindly Light (1949); Ashe, Geoffrey, Gandhi (1968).

Secondary:

1. The Atlantic Monthly; October, 1959; India's Masses: the Public That Can't Be             Reached; Volume 204, No. 4; pages 48-51

2. "BBC News | World | The Life and Death of Mahatma Gandhi." BBC News - Home. BBC. Web. 04 June 2011. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/50664.stm>.

3. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed., “India-Pakistan Wars.” Columbia             University Press, 2007.

4. Fredriksen, John C. "Gandhi, Rajiv." Biographical Dictionary of Modern World             Leaders: 1900–1991. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2003. Modern World             History Online. Facts On File,

5. Groff, Claire Price. "Gandhi, Indira." Twentieth-Century Women Political Leaders,             Global Profiles. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 1998. Modern World History             Online. Facts On File,            Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?
ItemID=WE53&iPin=wmleade            r00002&SingleRecord=True (accessed June 5, 2011).

6. International Boundary Consultants. "India's Boundary Disputes with China, Nepal, and Pakistan." International Boundary Consultants. Web. 05 June 2011. <http://www.boundaries.com/India.htm>.

7. Kidwai, Saleem M. “Indira Gandhi—An Outstanding International Leader.”             Mainstream Weekly, October 27, 2007.

8. "Manas: History and Politics, Mahatma Gandhi." History Politics. Web. 01 June 2011. <http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Gandhi/gandhi.html>.

9. Markovits, Claude. "The Calcutta Riots of 1946." Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. Sciences Po. Web. 04 June 2011. <http://www.massviolence.org/The-Calcutta-Riots-of-1946>.

10. McIntire, Suzanne. "'A Tryst with Destiny'." Speeches in World History. New York:             Facts On File, Inc., 2009. Modern World History Online. Facts On File,             Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?
ItemID=WE53&iPin=SIWH013            6&SingleRecord=True (accessed June 5, 2011).

11. Nosotro, Rit. "Hindu-Muslim Conflict and the Partition of India." HyperHistory.net. Web. 03 June 2011. <http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/cot/t3w30pakistanindia.htm>.

12. Pubantz, Jerry, and John Allphin Moore Jr. "Kashmir conflict." Encyclopedia of the             United Nations, Second Edition. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2008. Modern             World History. Facts On File,             Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?
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13. Wakin, Eric. "Nehru, Jawaharlal." Asian Independence Leaders, Global Profiles. New             York: Facts On File, Inc., 1997. Modern World History Online. Facts On File,             Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?
ItemID=WE53&iPin=asianlead            00004&SingleRecord=True (accessed June 5, 2011).

14. Zaman, Taymiya R. "Khilafat movement." In Ackermann, Marsha E., Michael             Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur, and Mark F. Whitters, eds.             Encyclopedia of World History: Crisis and Achievement, 1900 to 1950, vol. 5.             New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2008. Modern World History Online. Facts On             File,Inc. http://www.fofweb.com/activelink2.asp?
ItemID=WE53&iPin=WHV            137&SingleRecord=True (accessed June 5, 2011).

India and Pakistan’s Relationship Over time

 It has proven to be difficult for India and Pakistan to maintain a constructive and or peaceful relationship as time progressed into present day. India and Pakistan’s pugnacious history makes them current enemies. Combatants from the start, they have fought in many wars and disputes between each other regarding the age-old hatred linking Hinduism and Islam. Many disagreements have sprung out of border disputes in Jammu and Kashmir states currently occupied in India, but during the Hindu-Muslim partition could have concurred with either country. In 1966, after the Pak-India War over Kashmir, the Pakistani President and Indian prime minister agreed on a peace settlement between the two countries, (along with no interferences between any other countries and no armed forces in preparation of war.) The diplomats also arranged plans for economic/trade relations and communication. However, this fell apart in 1971 during a Pakistan civil war when India attacked Pakistan. India was able to obtain power of the eastern half of Pakistan, which was then given it’s independence and is now known as Bangladesh. Pakistan was defeated and lost this territory. Then again war almost broke out in 1990 over these same territories. With the three wars that occurred at the border, this is a very dangerous spot for all civilians. Developing from the border disputes is the issue of terrorist movements in those regions bordering Pakistan. Rivalry between the two countries has led Pakistan to foster Islamist terrorism whose purpose is to attack India. India has been a target for al Qaeda and the global jihadist movement for over a decade. One of the most recent tragedies being the 2008 Mumbai attacks, where organized terrorist attacks at popular tourist sites resulted in dozens killed by machine gun and grenade assaults. Future disagreements prove to be very dangerous because today both countries are armed with nuclear weapons. Presently, Pakistani Militants seem more eager than ever to prove they will survive in order to show that Islamic terrorism will be able to survive in considering of the recent assassination of Osama bin Laden. This constant threat of nuclear warfare has made the border between India and Pakistan the most dangerous border in the world. 

India's Developing Economy

The economy in India made great strides to achieve industrialization. In 1948, Jawaharlal Nehru took on the challenge to strengthen India’s weak economy. He knew that in order to achieve industrialization, India would need to receive economic aid from foreign, more developed countries. But the nationalists were scarred from the days of imperial rule, and would not accept being economically dominated by another country, especially Britain. Nehru claimed that “We would rather delay our development, industrial or otherwise, than submit any kind of economic domination of any country,” proving how much he despised Imperial movement. He knew that the rich minerals in India could help jump start exports with more jobs for India. Nehru said “Economic intuitions will ensure justice and fullness to every man and woman.” The greatest reforms in India’s economy started in 1985 when the government abolished the license regulations, so more businesses could bloom. The government decided that the reforms would be helpful towards the unemployed and growing the economy. With these new regulations, India was able to reduce quantitative restrictions on imports, reduce import duties on capital goods, and many other things. The growth of the economy also helped improve liberalization. Due to the government move to help the economy, the country was able to grow in wealth, modernization, and trade. Today, India’s Economy has changed dramatically, having the 11th greatest GDP in the world. India’s largest trading partner is currently the United States. Some of the major exports from India are textiles, garments, agricultural products, gems, and chemicals; India truly takes advantage of their natural resources. Without restrictions, India could begin the process of globalization. The economy is also modernizing life in India, with the increase of the number of cell phones, and other luxuries.

The Family Rule

Indira Gandhi with her two sons (Rajiv Gandhi, far right) 

The Nehru-Gandhi-Khan dynasty ranged from 1947, when Jawaharl Nehru became the first prime minister, until his grandson, Rajiv (Khan) Gandhi, was assassinated during office in 1991. Nehru ruled until his sudden death in 1964, helping the newly independent country with reasonable, nationalistic thoughts. He was able to help the nation in many ways, including achieving independence, which he referred to as the “Torch of freedom” which “lighted up the darkness that surrounded us.” Nehru tried to help the economy of India by calling for lowering of poverty levels, proper use of resources, increased foreign economic aid, and much more. He also developed a foreign policy called the Non-Aligned Movement, which was articulated by India’s refusal to form any alliance or prevent and alliance with foreign countries. This policy controlled India’s fate in the Cold War, as it obtained a mutual respect and non-aggression with the United States and the Soviet Union.  His unexpected death was very unfortunate for India, because he had proved a great leader of his people. After Nehru’s death, his daughter, Indira Gandhi who he had much political influence over, became prime minister in 1966. Indira Gandhi was a gifted international leader who helped the country in many different ways including: the win against Pakistan, increasing the strength of the military and economy, the anti-racist ideas in India, contributions to world peace, better education for Indian citizens, and nuclear powers. Although Indira Gandhi did struggle while trying to reduce poverty in India. She believed women should be sterilized, reducing pregnancies, and many people disagreed with this law. This led to Gandhi losing her spot as prime minister in 1977. Though, Gandhi accepted the loss without protesting. Gandhi was reelected in 1980, and was excited to be back in office. Though, Gandhi faced a dilemma with Sikh, a powerful religious and political group, who wanted to break away from India and become independent. Gandhi was against this plan and tension rose in India against these rebels. In 1984, Gandhi’s Sikh security guards assassinated her shortly after she ordered troops to attack one of their sacred places, the golden temple. The guards did this as revenge. After, Gandhi’s unfortunate death, her son Rajiv (Khan) Gandhi was asked to take his mothers spot as prime minister. Rajiv did not originally plan to get involved in politics, but he stepped in after the crisis.Rajiv Gandhi did an excellent job keeping the country together. He wanted to be less involved in violence and decided to abolish many of his mother’s socialist guidelines for economic liberalization and free enterprise. In 1991, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by a terrorist, which ended the dynasty. All in all, the Nehru-Khan-Gandhi dynasty had an important impact on India. The family influenced the military, economic, and political decisions for 44 years.

The Alterations of the Indian Government

Hope for a new, free India

The government of India has transformed greatly compared to the old control. The amount of equality and freedom has improved for the benefit of all citizens. In 1947, Nehru became the prime minister for the commanding government. In 1949, B. R. Ambedkar—the Minister of Law in the cabinet helped write the constitution, which was ratified on January 26, 1950. The ideals of the constitution promoted justice, freedom, and equality. For example, freedom of speech was allowed in India and the “untouchable” of the Caste System was put to an end. The constitution also changed the government to a parliament, which joined forces with the Indian Republic, also referred to as regional state governments. The Parliament, or central government, was divided into two separate houses. The Lok Sabha (People’s Assembly) was the lower of the two, has about 550 representatives. The other house was known as the Rajya Sabha (states’ assembly) has about 250 members. And with the constitution, the ‘Untouchables’ have reserved seats. Also, the constitution allows all male and females above the age of 18 to vote. The modifications to the government were able to help India to a great extent, letting all citizens have more independence and rightfulness. The secular government has some regulations on the citizens for cultural reasons. In India, Hinduism is a way of life, being the most common religion, with 80% of the population practicing it. The secularism rules accept practicing of: Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and other religions. Because Hinduism is so important in India, many discriminate against Islam, and it is not advocated in India. The Muslim living in India are often isolated from the others because their ideological differences and beliefs.

The Death of Gandhi

On January 30, 1948, Mohandas Gandhi was assassinated, an event that changed the course of Indian history, and most importantly the future of Hindu and Muslim relations. The night he was killed, Gandhi was taking part in a prayer meeting in New Delhi. Vincent Sheean, an American reporter, recalled attending the prayer meeting, and waiting just outside the prayer ground when “[he] heard four small, dull, dark explosions.” Disorder ensued on the prayer ground, as everyone was panic stricken with the thought of Mohandas Gandhi’s possible shooting. Unfortunately everyone’s worst fears were confirmed when Sheean’s friend verified that he had seen Gandhi being “carried away and that the khadi which he wore was heavily stained with blood." An America newspaper reported that the assassin tried to fire a fourth shot in an effort to kill himself, but a sergeant witnessing the event grabbed the pistol from the attacker. An infuriated crowd of people then charged the killer and beat him with sticks until police arrived and arrested the man. This killing properly foreshadowed the future progress of Hindu and Muslim relations, as it was later revealed that Gandhi’s attacker was a Hindu extremist who justified his actions by saying that Gandhi had acted too kindly towards the Islamic people. This lead to even more damaged relations between the rival religious groups as violence and outrage over his death followed.  It was clear that Gandhi’s dream of religious tolerance of Hindus and Muslims would never come true. Meanwhile, the entire world was left devastated upon hearing about the demise of the most influential, and pivotal figure involved in the fight for Indian independence. Jawaharlal Nehru addressed the Indian people regarding their immense loss, “Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives and there is darkness everywhere.” Click here for a recording of Jawaharlal Nehru announcing Gandhi's death.The grief of the people was extraordinary as India would be without its acclaimed, and beloved spiritual leader. He had inspired the world, and shaped a new nation through his unconventional use of passive resistance, or never resorting to violence. India owed Gandhi its freedom, the man who believed that "A small body of determined spirits fired by an unquenchable faith in their mission can alter the course of history.”

Muslim and Hindu Partition

Hindu and Muslim relations were major contributory factors in the formation of India’s independence, as the dream of a separate Muslim state became a reality in 1947. Feuds between the two ideologically contrasting faiths prove centuries old, the two populations never being able to coexist peacefully. In the early 1900s, Muslim members of the Indian National Congress split from the organization and formed their own Muslim league. The Muslims were infuriated by Hindu rule, and as s independence from the British Empire drew nearer, strained relations grew as the Islamic population of India began to fear that they would not receive proper representation in a largely Hindu dominated country. The raising tensions between Hindus and Muslims were resulting in hate crimes and religious violence despite Gandhi’s efforts to create harmony between the two groups. The Calcutta Riots of 1946 were four days of massive Hindu-Muslim riots in the capital of Bengal, India, resulting in 5,000 to 10,000 dead and some 15,000 wounded in the time span of three days. Among the chaos a man named Muhammad Jinnah emerged as a leader for the Islamic people. Jinnah, a member of the Indian National Congress, had always resented the dominantly Hindu congress. He promoted the righteousness of an Islamic free state,  “We [the Muslim population] should have a state in which we could live and breathe as free men, and which we could develop according to our own lights and culture, and where principles of Islamic social justice could find free play.”  It became clear to the British Empire that it would be impossible for the two factions to share a single nation. As a result, on June 15, 1947, the British House of Commons passed the Indian Independence Act, leaving India divided into two dominions. The subcontinent was partitioned into Hindu-dominated India, and the newly created Muslim state of Pakistan. Although this partitioning meant to be a solution, in actuality it had the antithetical effect. Severe rioting, chaos, and murder ensued, including the forced transfer of millions of people. Miscommunications over boundaries, and the disorganization of the transfer of people lead to extreme violence, homelessness, and greater acrimony between the two religious groups. The two nations were immediately thrust into a civil war. It was clear that the intolerance between Pakistanis and Indians would exist for a very long time.

Fight for Independence

Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru

Due to the weakening affects of World War II on the British Empire, and through the help of Indian nationalists such as Jawaharlal Nehru, and the powerful ideologies of Mohandas Gandhi, India would soon be able to call itself an independent nation. Mohandas Gandhi’s efforts during the 1920s and 1930s, through practice of satyagraha and civil disobedience, helped spring widespread outrage across the globe concerning Britain’s unjust colonial rule over India. Gandhi explained his methods saying, "The greater our innocence, the greater our strength and the swifter our victory." This meant that if they could succeed in making the British appear as the bad guys by remaining innocent and not resorting to violence. He believed they could create criticism of the British Empire, and spark international pressure for the British to leave India. Another major leader in India’s independence movement was Jawaharlal Nehru. Nehru acted as a political figure for the people of India, preaching words such as “We have to build the noble mansion of free India where all her children may dwell.” Nehru worked alongside Gandhi to make negotiations with the English Delegation. However Gandhi was more of a spiritual leader, Nehru was, what some would say, his political sidekick who also advocated for complete Indian freedom. Gandhi’s intuitive use of passive resistance, or resistance by nonviolent methods to a government by demonstration in protest, helped spread awareness of Indian frustrations. This fight for Indian home rule appeared successful, as criticism of the British Empire coerced the British government to release some of its power over India. After years of inauspicious colonial rule, in early 1930 the Indian National Congress announced that it would now be satisfied with nothing short of complete independence. Gandhi had proved the power of passive resistance as an outstanding revolutionary tactic. But when World War 2 broke out in 1939, Indian independence was postponed as two and a half million Indian soldiers set off to support British forces across Asia, Europe and Africa. Events such as Gandhi’s 1942  “Quit India” movement resulted; this was launched out of outrage from the Indian people that they were being dragged into a war without their consent. Gandhi made a speech calling for a “do or die” mentality of the people for their independence.

Finally when the war ended in 1945; a weakened Britain could no longer deny the enthusiastic Indian nationalists their independence. With Gandhi and his freedom fighters rapidly increasing their influence, the only clear option for the British Empire was to allow India it’s independence. After the War concluded, a process of decolonization commenced. Britain granted independence to all of its major colonies because the empire was bankrupt and unable to continue rule over it’s many colonies.. After almost a hundred years of struggle and subjugation, India was finally headed towards decolonization. But as Indian independence was becoming more and more attainable with British cooperation, a large issue still faced the soon to be independent nation.  

Introduction: Colonial India

Following World War II, India was finally able to leave the days of colonial rule behind them, and establish a foundation for self-rule. This liberation from British rule was long over-due for the Indian people after struggling many years for their freedom. India had long been suppressed by the British Crown. Ever since the 1700s when the British East India Company was established, India was forced to abide by another countries policies. Independence had always seemed far from reach. The famous Indian Revolt of 1857 was a sign of rising discontent over oppressive foreign rule, and led to the final collapse of company rule in India. The downfall of the British East India Company in the 19th century brought India under direct ruling of the British Crown. The formation of a sovereign government known as the “Raj” in India marked the true beginning of Indian dissatisfaction and longing for independence. Throughout the years following the establishment of the “Raj”, Indian rebel groups and acts of disapprobation constantly opposed the British. It was not until the rise of an outstanding leader, named Mohandas Gandhi, that global attention was directed to the “free India” cause. Through use of his revolutionary tactics of nonviolent protests, Gandhi, along with his associate Jawaharlal Nehru, would bring independence to their nation. But it would not come without a price, such as loss of territory to a new rival nation, and extreme religious intolerance that would lead to violence and terrorism in the years to come. A new country was born that would be home to great influential leaders, and to one of the most rapidly growing economies today. The decolonization of India would set the tone for other nations struggling under colonial rule, beginning the pattern of the granting of independence in recent modern history to colonies around the world.